How batteries work References

For reference

References of the course

How this course uses its sources. Every factual sentence in the course was checked against one of the textbooks and peer-reviewed articles below, all of which I have read in full; each entry says which chapters rest on it, and each figure’s “Source” toggle names the figure or equation it is drawn from. Where a source’s printed equation contains a typographical error, the course uses the form that follows from the source’s own premises. Analogies and my own opinions are marked as such. Numbers are quoted with the conditions and the date given in the source. The numbers below are this list’s own; each chapter numbers its citations from 1 in its own reference list.

  1. 1 A. J. Bard, L. R. Faulkner, H. S. White, "Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications", Wiley, 3rd edition, 2022.Chapters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, Lab 4, Lab 6
  2. 2 M. Winter, R. J. Brodd, "What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors?", Chemical Reviews 104, 2004, 4245-4269. doi:10.1021/cr020730kChapters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Lab 1, Lab 6
  3. 3 J. B. Goodenough, K.-S. Park, "The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective", Journal of the American Chemical Society 135, 2013, 1167-1176. doi:10.1021/ja3091438Chapters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Lab 6
  4. 4 C. Villevieille, P. Novák, H. H. Girault, "Your battery may not be a battery", Nature Nanotechnology, 2026, Comment, published online 15 October 2026. doi:10.1038/s41565-026-02296-wChapters 1, 5, 6
  5. 5 S. A. Arote, "Fundamentals and perspectives of lithium-ion batteries", chapter 1 of Lithium-ion and Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: Fundamentals to Performance, IOP Publishing, 2022, pp. 1-1 to 1-26. doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-4881-2ch1Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 16, 17, 18
  6. 6 O. Faruque, M. J. Isalm, O. Faruq, M. M. Alam, "A comprehensive review of past and present developments of Li-ion batteries", Discover Sustainability 7, 2026, 881. doi:10.1007/s43621-026-02920-8Chapters 1, 2, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18
  7. 7 V. Murray, D. S. Hall, J. R. Dahn, "A Guide to Full Coin Cell Making for Academic Researchers", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 166, 2019, A329-A333. doi:10.1149/2.1171902jesChapters 2, 5, Lab 6
  8. 8 J.-M. Tarascon, M. Armand, "Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries", Nature 414, 2001, 359-367. doi:10.1038/35104644Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, Lab 6
  9. 9 J. T. Frith, M. J. Lacey, U. Ulissi, "A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries", Nature Communications 14, 2023, 420. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-35933-2Chapters 2, 5, 7, 13, 15
  10. 10 A. Manthiram, "A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry", Nature Communications 11, 2020, 1550. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0Chapters 2, 5, 7, 13, 15
  11. 11 J.-J. Marie, S. Gifford, "Developments in lithium-ion battery cathodes", Faraday Insights, Issue 18 (The Faraday Institution), 2023, September 2023. linkChapters 2, 5, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16
  12. 12 H. Zhang, C. Li, G. G. Eshetu, S. Laruelle, S. Grugeon, K. Zaghib, C. Julien, A. Mauger, D. Guyomard, T. Rojo, N. Gisbert-Trejo, S. Passerini, X. Huang, Z. Zhou, P. Johansson, M. Forsyth, "From Solid-Solution Electrodes and the Rocking-Chair Concept to Today's Batteries", Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, 2020, 534-538. doi:10.1002/anie.201913923Chapters 2, 7, 10, 11, 17, 18
  13. 13 D. Shanmukaraj, P. Ranque, H. Ben Youcef, T. Rojo, P. Poizot, S. Grugeon, S. Laruelle, D. Guyomard, "Review—Towards Efficient Energy Storage Materials: Lithium Intercalation/Organic Electrodes to Polymer Electrolytes—A Road Map (Tribute to Michel Armand)", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 167, 2020, 070530. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ab787aChapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18
  14. 14 J. B. Goodenough, "How we made the Li-ion rechargeable battery", Nature Electronics 1, 2018, 204. doi:10.1038/s41928-018-0048-6Chapters 2, 7, 15, 17, 18
  15. 15 M. Fichtner, K. Edström, E. Ayerbe, M. Berecibar, A. Bhowmik, I. E. Castelli, S. Clark, R. Dominko, M. Erakca, A. A. Franco, A. Grimaud, B. Horstmann, A. Latz, H. Lorrmann, M. Meeus, R. Narayan, F. Pammer, J. Ruhland, H. Stein, T. Vegge, M. Weil, "Rechargeable Batteries of the Future—The State of the Art from a BATTERY 2030+ Perspective", Advanced Energy Materials 12, 2022, 2102904. doi:10.1002/aenm.202102904Chapters 2, 7, 10, 11, 15, 17, 18, Lab 6
  16. 16 B. Boz, T. Dev, A. Salvadori, J. L. Schaefer, "Review: Electrolyte and Electrode Designs for Enhanced Ion Transport Properties to Enable High Performance Lithium Batteries", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168, 2021, 090501. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ac1cc3Chapters 2, 8, 9, 11
  17. 17 J. Z. Olson, C. M. López, E. J. F. Dickinson, "Differential Analysis of Galvanostatic Cycle Data from Li-Ion Batteries: Interpretative Insights and Graphical Heuristics", Chemistry of Materials 35, 2023, 1487–1513. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c01976Chapters 5, 6, Lab 1
  18. 18 M. Safari, C. Delacourt, "Mathematical Modeling of Lithium Iron Phosphate Electrode: Galvanostatic Charge/Discharge and Path Dependence", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 158, 2011, A63–A73. doi:10.1149/1.3515902Chapters 5, 6, 11, 15
  19. 19 G. G. Eshetu, H. Zhang, X. Judez, H. Adenusi, M. Armand, S. Passerini, E. Figgemeier, "Production of high-energy Li-ion batteries comprising silicon-containing anodes and insertion-type cathodes", Nature Communications 12, 2021, 5459. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-25334-8Chapters 5, 13, 15
  20. 20 P. Jindal, R. Katiyar, J. Bhattacharya, "Evaluation of accuracy for Bernardi equation in estimating heat generation rate for continuous and pulse-discharge protocols in LFP and NMC based Li-ion batteries", Applied Thermal Engineering 201, 2022, 117794. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117794Chapter 5
  21. 21 A. A. Moya, "A physically consistent electric circuit to interpret the galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of electric double layer capacitors", Journal of Power Sources 656, 2025, 238050. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.238050Chapters 5, 6
  22. 22 J. Landesfeind, J. Hattendorff, A. Ehrl, W. A. Wall, H. A. Gasteiger, "Tortuosity Determination of Battery Electrodes and Separators by Impedance Spectroscopy", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 163, 2016, A1373. doi:10.1149/2.1141607jesChapters 5, 11
  23. 23 M. Doyle, T. F. Fuller, J. Newman, "Modeling of Galvanostatic Charge and Discharge of the Lithium/Polymer/Insertion Cell", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 140, 1993, 1526–1533. doi:10.1149/1.2221597Chapters 5, 11
  24. 24 M. M. Rahman, U. Nisar, A. Abouimrane, I. Belharouak, R. Amin, "Valuation of Anode Materials for High-Performance Lithium Batteries: From Graphite to Lithium Metal and Beyond", Electrochemical Energy Reviews 8, 2025, 14. doi:10.1007/s41918-025-00249-wChapters 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16
  25. 25 K. Nagendra, K. Nikgoftar, A. K. Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, J. Rajpurohit, J. I. G. Dawkins, T. M. Guimaraes Selva, K. Zaghib, "Challenges and Issues in Using Coated and Uncoated Graphitic Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries", Batteries 12, 2026, 154. doi:10.3390/batteries12050154Chapter 7
  26. 26 K. Brandt, "Historical development of secondary lithium batteries", Solid State Ionics 69, 1994, 173-183. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(94)90408-1Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18
  27. 27 A. Wang, S. Kadam, H. Li, S. Shi, Y. Qi, "Review on modeling of the anode solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) for lithium-ion batteries", npj Computational Materials 4, 2018, 15. doi:10.1038/s41524-018-0064-0Chapters 7, 10, 16
  28. 28 K. Manmi, M. Tuchel, E. Kendrick, F. Brosa Planella, "A Comparison of Standard SEI Growth Models in the Context of Battery Formation", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 171, 2024, 100530. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ad8548Chapters 7, 10, 16
  29. 29 B. Horstmann, F. Single, A. Latz, "Review on multi-scale models of solid-electrolyte interphase formation", Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 13, 2019, 61-69. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2018.10.013Chapters 7, 10, 16, 17, 18
  30. 30 O. Borodin, X. Ren, J. Vatamanu, A. von Wald Cresce, J. Knap, K. Xu, "Modeling Insight into Battery Electrolyte Electrochemical Stability and Interfacial Structure", Accounts of Chemical Research 50, 2017, 2886-2894. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00486Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, 14
  31. 31 K. Abe, "Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Advances in Additives", in T. R. Jow, K. Xu, O. Borodin, M. Ue (eds.), Electrolytes for Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 58, Springer, New York, 2014, 167-207. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0302-3_3Chapters 7, 8, 10, 17, 18
  32. 32 M. Ue, Y. Sasaki, Y. Tanaka, M. Morita, "Nonaqueous Electrolytes with Advances in Solvents", in T. R. Jow, K. Xu, O. Borodin, M. Ue (eds.), Electrolytes for Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 58, Springer, New York, 2014, 93-165. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0302-3_2Chapters 8, Lab 2, Lab 6
  33. 33 W. A. Henderson, "Nonaqueous Electrolytes: Advances in Lithium Salts", in T. R. Jow, K. Xu, O. Borodin, M. Ue (eds.), Electrolytes for Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 58, Springer, New York, 2014, 1-92. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0302-3_1Chapters 8, 9, 14
  34. 34 O. Borodin, "Molecular Modeling of Electrolytes", in T. R. Jow, K. Xu, O. Borodin, M. Ue (eds.), Electrolytes for Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 58, Springer, New York, 2014, 371-401. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0302-3_8Chapters 8, 9
  35. 35 S. Pathak, M. Z. Bazant, "Scaling and Analytical Approximation of Porous Electrode Theory for Reaction-limited Batteries", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 173, 2026, 160518. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ae9229Chapter 11
  36. 36 R. Jung, M. Metzger, F. Maglia, C. Stinner, H. A. Gasteiger, "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 164, 2017, A1361–A1377. doi:10.1149/2.0021707jesChapters 13, 15
  37. 37 J. Wang, P. Apostol, D. Rambabu, X. Guo, X. Liu, K. Robeyns, M. Du, Y. Zhang, S. Pal, R. Markowski, F. Lucaccioni, A. E. Lakraychi, C. Morari, J.-F. Gohy, D. Gupta, A. Vlad, "Revealing the reversible solid-state electrochemistry of lithium-containing conjugated oximates for organic batteries", Science Advances 9, 2023, eadg6079. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg6079Chapter 15
  38. 38 X. Guo, P. Apostol, X. Zhou, J. Wang, X. Lin, D. Rambabu, M. Du, S. Er, A. Vlad, "Towards the 4 V-class n-type organic lithium-ion positive electrode materials: the case of conjugated triflimides and cyanamides", Energy & Environmental Science 17, 2024, 173–182. doi:10.1039/d3ee02897fChapters 15, Lab 2, Lab 6
  39. 39 A. Jouhara, N. Dupré, A.-C. Gaillot, D. Guyomard, F. Dolhem, P. Poizot, "Raising the redox potential in carboxyphenolate-based positive organic materials via cation substitution", Nature Communications 9, 2018, 4401. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06708-xChapter 15
  40. 40 A. Jouhara, E. Quarez, N. Gautier, F. Boucher, E. Janod, N. Dupré, J. Gaubicher, P. Poizot, "Unveiling the Peierls effect during electrochemical delithiation/lithiation process in magnesium (2,5-dilithium-oxy)-terephthalate using combined experimental and computational studies", Energy Storage Materials 81, 2025, 104456. doi:10.1016/j.ensm.2025.104456Chapter 15
  41. 41 L. von Kolzenberg, A. Latz, B. Horstmann, "Solid-Electrolyte Interphase During Battery Cycling: Theory of Growth Regimes", ChemSusChem 13, 2020, 3901-3910. doi:10.1002/cssc.202000867Chapters 16, 17, 18
  42. 42 W. Weppner, R. A. Huggins, "Electrochemical Investigation of the Chemical Diffusion, Partial Ionic Conductivities, and Other Kinetic Parameters in Li3Sb and Li3Bi", Journal of Solid State Chemistry 22, 1977, 297-308. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(77)90006-8Lab 1, Lab 3, Lab 6
  43. 43 J. Kim, S. Park, S. Hwang, W.-S. Yoon, "Principles and Applications of Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique for Lithium-ion Batteries", Journal of Electrochemical Science and Technology 13, 2022, 19–31. doi:10.33961/jecst.2021.00836Lab 1, Lab 3, Lab 6
  44. 44 A. Ch. Lazanas, M. I. Prodromidis, "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy—A Tutorial", ACS Measurement Science Au 3, 2023, 162–193. doi:10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.2c00070Lab 1, Lab 4, Lab 5, Lab 6
  45. 45 C. M. López, X. Yao, R. Samajdar, K. Vajaria, "Assembling Coin Cells in Half Cell Format", NPL Good Practice Guide 153, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, 2024. doi:10.47120/npl.mgpg153Lab 1, Lab 6
  46. 46 K. Bogomolov, N. Yitzhack, Y. Ein-Eli, "Introducing Li-ion battery technology to undergraduate students via hands-on lab studies and analysis", ChemTexts 12, 2026, 7. doi:10.1007/s40828-026-00219-9Lab 1, Lab 6
  47. 47 F. Dai, M. Cai, "Best practices in lithium battery cell preparation and evaluation", Communications Materials 3, 2022, 64. doi:10.1038/s43246-022-00286-8Lab 1, Lab 6
  48. 48 C.-H. Chen, F. Brosa Planella, K. O'Regan, D. Gastol, W. D. Widanage, E. Kendrick, "Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery Models", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 167, 2020, 080534. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ab9050Lab 1, Lab 5, Lab 6
  49. 49 N. Elgrishi, K. J. Rountree, B. D. McCarthy, E. S. Rountree, T. T. Eisenhart, J. L. Dempsey, "A Practical Beginner's Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry", Journal of Chemical Education 95, 2018, 197-206. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361Lab 2, Lab 6
  50. 50 T. Kim, W. Choi, H.-C. Shin, J.-Y. Choi, J. M. Kim, M.-S. Park, W.-S. Yoon, "Applications of Voltammetry in Lithium Ion Battery Research", Journal of Electrochemical Science and Technology 11, 2020, 14-25. doi:10.33961/jecst.2019.00619Lab 2, Lab 6
  51. 51 X. Pu, D. Zhao, C. Fu, Z. Chen, S. Cao, C. Wang, Y. Cao, "Understanding and Calibration of Charge Storage Mechanism in Cyclic Voltammetry Curves", Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, 2021, 21310-21318. doi:10.1002/anie.202104167Lab 2, Lab 6
  52. 52 S. Fleischmann, J. B. Mitchell, R. Wang, C. Zhan, D. Jiang, V. Presser, V. Augustyn, "Pseudocapacitance: From Fundamental Understanding to High Power Energy Storage Materials", Chemical Reviews 120, 2020, 6738-6782. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00170Lab 2, Lab 6
  53. 53 P. Ghasemiahangarani, D. del Mundo, R. C. Chow, G. Farhan, L. W. Gordon, T. Schoetz, "A tutorial for the identification and quantitative disentangling of charge storage mechanisms by variable-rate cyclic voltammetry", Electrochimica Acta 551, 2026, 148127. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2026.148127Lab 2, Lab 6
  54. 54 H. Chen, P. Dhiman, H.-Y. S. Huang, "Dislocation-induced artifacts in cyclic voltammetry of battery materials", Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, 2026. doi:10.1007/s10008-026-06729-3Lab 2, Lab 6
  55. 55 J. Scheers, P. Johansson, "Prediction of Electrolyte and Additive Electrochemical Stabilities", in T. R. Jow, K. Xu, O. Borodin, M. Ue (eds.), Electrolytes for Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 58, Springer, New York, 2014, 403-443. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0302-3_9Lab 2, Lab 6
  56. 56 N. Meddings, M. Heinrich, F. Overney, J.-S. Lee, V. Ruiz, E. Napolitano, S. Seitz, G. Hinds, R. Raccichini, M. Gaberšček, J. Park, "Application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to commercial Li-ion cells: A review", Journal of Power Sources 480, 2020, 228742. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228742Lab 3, Lab 4, Lab 5, Lab 6
  57. 57 I. Abbas, H. T. Tran, T. T. N. Tran, T. L. Pham, E.-C. Shin, C.-W. Park, S.-B. Yu, O. J. Lee, A.-G. Nguyen, D. Jeong, B. H. Ka, H.-H. Cho, J. Lim, N. Shin, M. Gaberšček, S.-M. Hur, C.-J. Park, J. Kim, J.-S. Lee, "GITT Limitations and EIS Insights into Kinetics of NMC622", Batteries 11, 2025, 234. doi:10.3390/batteries11060234Lab 3, Lab 4, Lab 5, Lab 6
  58. 58 A. Nickol, T. Schied, C. Heubner, M. Schneider, A. Michaelis, M. Bobeth, G. Cuniberti, "GITT Analysis of Lithium Insertion Cathodes for Determining the Lithium Diffusion Coefficient at Low Temperature: Challenges and Pitfalls", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 167, 2020, 090546. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ab9404Lab 3, Lab 6
  59. 59 S. D. Kang, W. C. Chueh, "Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique Reinvented: Part I. A Critical Review", Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168, 2021, 120504. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ac3940Lab 3, Lab 6
  60. 60 S. T. Bakenhaster, H. D. Dewald, "Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and battery systems: past work, current research, and future opportunities", Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 55, 2025, 1657–1681. doi:10.1007/s10800-025-02273-6Lab 4, Lab 5, Lab 6
  61. 61 A. Moretti, D. Vieira Carvalho, N. Ehteshami, E. Paillard, W. Porcher, D. Brun-Buisson, J.-B. Ducros, I. de Meatza, A. Eguia-Barrio, K. Trad, S. Passerini, "A Post-Mortem Study of Stacked 16 Ah Graphite//LiFePO4 Pouch Cells Cycled at 5 °C", Batteries 5, 2019, 45. doi:10.3390/batteries5020045Lab 6
  62. 62 S. M. Abbas, A. Jodlbauer, M. Wilkening, H. Wiltsche, J. V. Ecker, C. Ellersdorfer, G. Gstrein, I. Hanzu, "Post-mortem identification of lithium plating in high energy automotive batteries", Sustainable Energy & Fuels 9, 2025, 5342-5353. doi:10.1039/d5se00509dLab 6
  63. 63 W. Wheeler, Y. Bultel, P. Venet, A. Sari, E. Riviere, "Postmortem Analysis of 18650 Graphite/LFP Cells in a Long-Term Aging Study for Second-Life Applications", Batteries 10, 2024, 119. doi:10.3390/batteries10040119Lab 6

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Using this page in teaching, a thesis or an article? Cite it as follows; the date is the last update of the course.

Shyma Sajeevan, A. (2026). References. How batteries work. https://asajeevan.github.io/batteries/references/

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